Ravenna Mosaics
(6th - 7th century)

San Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (Arian phase)

	1. San Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. A scene from Christ's life: Christ, flanked by his courtly angelic advisors, pronounces the last judgement, separating the sheep from the goats. Before 526 A.D. The top of the two rows of mosaics along the nave and above and between the windows were made when the church was first built, sometime before 526, when it was Arian Christian (under the Ostrogothic kings) and Ravenna had not yet been reincorporated into the Eastern Roman Empire by the armies of Justinian. This top row of mosaics shows twenty-six scenes from Christ's life. They are small rectangles which are hard to see if you are standing in the nave, which may be why they were not updated. The Ostrogothic mosaics were more inclined to treat Christ naturalistically and accomodate him within a Roman imperial framework.
	2. San Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Top zone nave mosaic showing Christ before Pilate. This series of mosaics representing the life of Christ avoids the crucifixion because in the Arian Christian tradition the emphasis was on the human Christ living in the context of the Empire..
	3. San Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Mosaic detail of Saint Andrew and fisherman, before 526 A.D. Also from the top row, but reflects more of the traditional lively narrative than the previous mosaic. Here a colorful simple design with a sober rendering of masses.

Arian Baptistry, Ravenna

	1. Arian Baptistry, Ravenna. Central cupola mosaic showing John baptizing Christ, surrounded by the Apostles. Under Theodoric, who was installed by the Roman Emperor Zeno as both regent in Italy (493-526 A.D.) and king of Rome's Ostrogothic army, royally sponsored mosaics reflect Ostrogothic religious conceptions. This was a traditional Christian belief as it existed prior to Constantine's theological intervention, which came to be known as Arian Christianity. It tended to see Christ historically, in human and naturalistic terms, rather than as a symbol or transcendental spirit, and baptism was particularly significant.
	2. Arian Baptistry, Ravenna. Detail of John baptizing Christ. Christ is here treated in a worldly and classical fashion. While there are symbols, including the representation of the river Jordan in human form, and hieratic elements (linear drapery, gold ground, peculiar perspective), Christ is basically a classical nude. Theodoric was raised in Constantinople, and he may well have brought Greek speaking craftsmen with him when he was sent to Italy.
	3. Arian Baptistry, Ravenna. Saints Peter and Paul flank Christ's throne. While Christ is here present only in symbolic form, and there are other hieratic elements, there is also a narrative naturalism.
	4. Arian Baptistry, Ravenna. Saint Peter with his key.
	5. Arian Baptistry, Ravenna. Saint Paul with his book (rotulus).

Archbishop Andrea's palace chapel, Ravenna

	1. Archbishop Andrea's palace chapel of San Andrea. Mosaic decoration of the oratory cupola, ca. 494-519, shows that orthodox Christianity did well under the rule of Arian Ostrogoths. The four angels float in a pose recalling orants. The six-pointed cross and the crosses on the side with the alpha-omega resemble the Constantinian medallion. The evangelist iconograpy is fairly mature here: Mathew is a winged man representing the Incarnation; Mark a winged lion representing royalty; Luke a winged ox representing sacrifice; and John an eagle representing inspiration.
	2. Archbishop Andrea's palace chapel, Ravenna. Christ as legionary overcomes evil in the form of a snake. Christ, as in Arian mosaics, is represented here in naturalistic terms, but there is a subtle difference. He is not a classical nude, as East Mediterranean artists in Theodoric's suite might represent him, but a frontal legionary. The expressive eyes and a combination of hieratic elements (elaborate nimbus and cross, symbol of evil as a snake) and narrative probably reflect Italian plebeian tastes.
	3. Archbishop Andrea's palace chapel, Ravenna. Nevertheless, the apse mosaic represents Christ as an abstract symbol in the heavenly sky rather than as a real person that once lived on earth. This is the trend usually manifested in orthodox art.
	4. Archbishop Andrea's palace chapel, Ravenna. Saint Paul. Again, hieratic elements, such as the frontality, gold ground, and label, but Paul's naturalistic and expressive face reflect parochial and Italian provincial tastes somewhat removed from the East Mediterranean aesthetic.

San Vitale basilica, Ravenna

	1. San Vitale basilica, Ravenna. Interior. Although the construction of San Vitale began under Archibishop Ecclesius (521-534), it was not finished until 547, and the mosaics were made under the authority of Justinian, whose general Belisarius took the city in 540. Artisans from Constantinople may have followed the army and had a hand in the mosaic work.
	2. San Vitale, Ravenna, middle of presbyterium dome, mosaic of the "tent of heaven." Orant angels support the Lamb Triumphant surrounded by garland of four seasons which suggests Paradise. The classical acanthus is handled naturalistically, and the symbols are concrete. The Lamb is on a blue rather than gold ground.
	3. San Vitale, Ravenna. Typical East Mediterranean basket-type capital. We see here an early expression of the coming feudal aesthetic, where space exists as a milieu rather than a limit. That is, meaning exists in terms of the relations of things rather than through their surfaces. The counterposed animals reflect the Sassanid influence in the East Mediterranean, although the hom has been changed here to a cross and the animals are lambs (?). The mosaic above with the doves and basket of fruit represents the Holy Spirit and Paradise, respectively.
	4. San Vitale, Ravenna. Choir vault decorative mosaic. Peacocks in paradise, acanthus tendrils and dolphins. The entire choir is cloaked with a mosaic carpet of blazing color that masks the wall structures.
	5. San Vitale, Ravenna. Apse mosaic of the theophany. Christ as cosmocrator sits on the sphere of the cosmos. Saints, including Saint Vitalis and Archbishop Ecclesius and a donor are being welcomed into the celestial garden of Paradise. Beneath flow the four rivers of Paradise, which become part of standard iconography. The heavenly Paradise is represented both naturalistically (vegitation; pink and blue clouds), but also symbolically (gold ground). The stylistic ambivalence also see in the handling of the figures, which are both transcendent two-dimensional frontal floating figures, playing roles, and yet also individuated. Sharply contrasting color touches are expressive.
	6. On either side of the apse are imperial processions, and here is the court of Justinian. To the right are clergy, including Archbishop Maximanus, and monks. To the left are secular officials, including military officers who bear the Constantinian monogram on their shield. One suspects it is General Belisarius who stands just behind and to the right of Justinian. The frontal pose with functional separation of groups recalls court ceremony. Formal heiratic pattern overcomes naturalism: little feet stepping on each other's toes; rich linear drapery; ritual gesture holding symbols. But there is nevertheless green earth and an individuation of the faces.
	7. San Vitale, Ravenna. Here a dignitary from Justinian's retinue. Note the linear drapery pattern and fontal pose. Sharp color contrasts are used to intensify expression. The individuation of facial features leads one to suspect that these may be actual portraits done by artists from Constantinople.
	8. Theodora's court. Neither Justinian nor Theodora were actually present in Ravenna, but she is nevertheless represented as part of an imperial court group on the side of the apse opposite her husband and as handing over a jpgt. So this scene must be understood symbolically rather than literally. Note the feet and drapery. Hieratic elements seen in the linear abstraction, gold ground, and frontality.
	9. Head of the Empress Theodora. Originally a north African actress, Theodora was considered no better than a prostitute, and yet she was apparently the real brains and power behind the imperial throne. Mother of pearl is used here as tesserae. The goal of hieratic decorative pattern overcomes naturalism. While the imperial mosaics in Ravenna certainly reflect the influence of Constantinople, if one compares them with contemporary work in Hagia Sophia or Salonica, it is evident that they are not merely an expression of courtly taste, but an independent local tradition.
	10. Detail from Theodora's retinue, before 547 A.D. The two figures are carefully individuated although parts of a rhythmic pattern of repeated forms.
	11. Mosaic detail of a lady in Theodora's retinue. A mosaic such as this is often felt to manifest the high point of the Western mosaic art form, representing both the character and the limits of the medium. The use of highly colored vitreous paste tesserae allows the artist to achieve effects impossible in any other art form except perhaps polychrome metal work.
	12. Medallions with portraits of the Apostles Thomas and Jacob from a set of twelve apostles on the underside of an arch. The hugh church of San Vitale has mosaics everywhere, and it is considered a major monument in Western art history. The smallest detail, easily overlooked, proves exciting on close inspection. For example, while these two apostles lack plastic values, their faces are individuated and expressive. The lively stylized dolphins on the blue ground are naturalistic, and the medallion employs an architectural roundel to achieve a depth perspective.
	13. San Vitale, Ravenna. General view of a group of mosaics. The mosaics from this church tend to focus on Biblical themes.
	14. A detail from this group shows Moses receiving the law on Mt. Sinai. The use of color here is impressionistic rather than naturalistic, but is effective. There is a mix of naturalistic and such hieratic elements as the addition of a "Moses" label to echo the naturally represented content in symbolic form. The ambivalence of so much of the art in 6th-century Ravenna suggests it is sub-Roman and transitional rather than truely feudal.
	15. Another detail from this group, the Sacrifice of Abel and Melchisedec. Traditional classical narrative scene with plastic values in the figures, with some subtle color and shading to convey them, yet also some hieratic influences, symmetry, stylizations, labels in the sky, and ritualistic gesture.
	16. San Vitale, Ravenna. Another general group of mosacs.
	17. Detail from this group showing the Hospitality of Abraham. While proportions are hieratic, Abraham's wife has an expressive gesture.
	18. Here is an example of the "Inspired Evangelist" iconographic theme. Each Evangelist has a set of associated symbols. Mark is shown here with an open codex, writing stand, and lion, but it is John on Patmos who becomes the symbol of inspired writing specifically, and so the iconography is here still a little ambivalent.

San Apollinare in Classe

	1. San Apollinare in Classe basilica, apse basin mosaic, 549 A.D. Saint Apollinare with lambs on a gold ground. Classe was Ravenna's port on the Adriatic, but today nothing is left but the church. A number of other coastal towns grew in significance during the troubles of the 5-6th century, but after the Gothic Wars sank back into obscurity or disappeared altogether. San Apollinare in Classe's mosaics date shortly after the East Roman occupation and are therefore Orthodox rather than Arian and are in the apse area. Here Saint Apollinare is accompanied by twelve sheep representing the twelve apostles. Together with the lambs, Peter, Paul and John, and figures of the prophets Elias and Moses, we see an entire heavenly court surrounding the medalion that suggests Christ as King of Heaven. This stands in conscious opposition to the Arian view of Christ as an earthly figure placed in the context of the Roman Empire.
	2. Saint Apollinare with lambs on a gold ground. The lambs are presented from a side view to enhance the narrative effect, and the grass, rocks and trees also add some degree of naturalism.
	3. Detail of apse mosaic showing Bishop Apollinare. Conventions are present here which long affect painting: the combination of lilies and roses to symbolize virtues and Christ's Passion, stylized trees, and rocks with cleavages, which might point to the revolutionary implications of the Christian era. In contrast images in the top (heavenly) zone, while Apollinaris is frontal and his gesture ritualistic, he stands firmly on the ground and his face is natural.
	4. Mosaic detail showing Christ in a roundel. This heavenly region is more hieratic and symbolic, in contrast with the more narrative and naturalistic lower zone of the apse mosaic, Christ is here not a youthful soldier or classical nude, but a mystical guru. His treatment is highly stylized and linear (the drapery edge unites hand to face; lines in forehead, pointed beard); he is now an older, severe, heavenly lawgiver. While it is said the Byzantine tradition tends to de-emphasize the human Christ and the Arian tradition to do the opposite, the two zones of this mosaic suggest the difference is more subtle than that. The zones represent the theological contradiction between matter and spirit as a real (Kantean) opposition, versus the Arian avoidance of contradiction and versus the later (early feudal, Augustinian mystical) reconciliation of the two as merely aspects of a unitary process of salvation.
	5. Mosaic detail of the symbol for the Evangelist Luke: an ox, often winged and with his Gospel. Not only are the symbols of the Evangelists being defined at this time for the future, but even the pink and blue rolled cotten clouds become a convention.
	6. San Apollinare in Classe, mosaic detail. Symbol of the Evangelist John. 547 A.D. John is represented by an Eagle, often with writing implements on Patmos, where he wrote his Gospel. The iconograpy also serves to represent the idea of divine inspiration.
	7. Mosaic detail from the apse area. St. Michael. He is fully hieratic, although the stylizations don't prevent a certain interest in beauty for its own sake, as in the rich pattern and pleasing lines. Also the pretty, rather classical treatment of the face.
	8. Mosaic detail of Elias. 547 A.D. While Saint Apollinare was frontal and his gesture ritualistic, he stood on the ground and had a somewhat individuated face. In contrast, the prophet Elias is in the upper, heavenly, zone. He is partially disembodied. His drapery is energized and floats in the air. While shading still provides some sense of plastic values, the figure tends to become linear, such as his eyebrows, forehead furrows, and ascetic face.

San Apollinare Nuovo basilica, Ravenna (Orthodox phase)

	1. San Apollinare Nuovo basilica, Ravenna. The enthroned Christ flanked by angels, 556 A.D. When in 540 the East Roman Exarchs took over Ravenna, they reconsecrated the Arian churches. San Apollinare was reconsecrated in 556 and was given a new bishop (Archbishop Agnellus, 556-569). At that time the lower row of mosacs along the nave were removed or altered. Originally the bottem row showed a long courtly procession that lead from the Ostrogothic royal palace to Christ and Mary seated in majesty on opposite sides of the nave. Here Christ is seated on this throne. Because Agnellus decided not to change this portion of the mosaic, Christ manifests Arian Christian naturalism.
	2. The procession of martyrs. What was originally a courtly procession leading to Christ was replaced by a file of twenty-six martyrs with Saint Martin. This long file of solumn white figures along the nave of the church is effective overall, with its emphasis on mass movement rather than individual expression.
	3. San Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Mosaic showing procession of martyrs led by Saint Martin. The use of small vitreous paste tesserae create a shimmering effect. Considerable restoration limits any analysis of these mosaics.
	4. San Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. The lower zone of mosaics along Mary's side of the nave has a long procession of twenty-two virgins, led by the Magi, who approach Mary.
	5. Mosaic of enthroned Mary with angels. End 6th c. A.D. In contrast to the Arian mosaic of Christ, Mary gets a more stylized and hieratic treatment (note her small head, hands and feet), which suggests she was remade in 556. Even the platform on which her feet are placed shows less naturalistic perspective.
	6. Magi with a virgin. End 6th c. A.D. The group of Magi with Gallic caps is particularly effective, with its rich colors and sense of the movement, and yet each Magus is individuated. Unfortunately, later restorations undercut any reliable historic analysis.
	7. Mosaic detail of the Arrival of the Magi. The restoration is so extensive that analysis is impossible beyond saying that the naturalism of the faces is entirely inappropriate for the era when the mosaics were first made.
	8. Mosaic detail showing the Emperor Justinian, 556 A.D. Although Justinian was alive when this mosaic was made, he nevertheless gets a nimbus (with Sassanid beads, reflecting the orgin of the symbol), which suggests his role as God's direct agent on earth. The effect of Justinian's take-over of Italy was not positive. Not only were the Gothic wars terribly destructive, but the powerful landowners continue to resist being governed. While the Lombard arrival did not affect Ravenna directly, it tended to isolate the area. We therefore do not see in Ravenna the neo-classicism then in fashion at the court of Constantinople.
	9. San Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Mosaic of Justinian's palace.
	10. Constantine IV (668-685) grants tax immunity to the Archbishop of Ravenna. Although Ravenna declined in the 7th century, its basic social structure remained sub-Roman until Aistulf took over in 751. So there were a few final expressions of the mosaic tradition of the previous century. This work was in fact modeled on S. Vitale's Justinian mosaic, and in terms of style it looks more to Italian miniature painting than to East Mediterranean imperial influences.