Expressive Classicism in the Roman Empire

(late 2nd to late 3rd century)

Chronological survey

	1. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (Rome: Plazza del Campidoglio). The reign of Marcus Aurelius (161 to 180 A.D.) is often taken to mark the beginning of the Crisis of the 3rd Century in Rome. A retiring man known for his great philosophical work, Meditations, he was compelled to lead the army in numerous struggles against rebellion and invasion. These military endeavors deepened the inherent contradiction of Rome and opened Rome's most troubled century.
	2. Portrait bust of Marcus Aurelius, late 2nd c. A.D. The Graeco-Roman classical style, because of its ideological function, tended to be conservative, but by the time of Marcus Aurelius, it begins to express the inner life of the individual, not just because the "system" was less capable of meeting emergent needs, but also because of the enrichment of personality. The emperor here is represented as a philosopher who finds in inner life the resources to confront difficult circumstances.
	3. Detail from triumphal column of Marcus Aurelius, 190's A.D. Rome's deepening contradiction undercuts the traditional faith in the efficacy of political action. Here the Roman victory over some Germanic warriors on the northern frontier is not the result of its heroic virtue, but fate, manifested in divinized rain, that intervenes in Rome's favor. Still narrative, but a new tone of pathos emphasized by deep incision.
	4. Ibid., showing captured women. The traditional reliance was on surface form to convey meaning, but here those forms express instead an inner pathos. The eyes, gaping mouth, whiping drapery, and the tilt of the woman's head all express an inner reality that is becoming more important in official art.
	5. Ibid., dying barbarian. In contrast to old fleeing barbarian theme, here the Roman soldiers are also handled expressively. The frontal pose increases emotional impact. The bird's eye perspective and loss of individuation reflect a shift of interest from outer naturalism to inner meaning.
	6. Fresco of Septemius Severus (193-211) and his family (Berlin: Staatliche Museen). Septimius was from Leptis Magna in North Africa. He had to learn his Latin, and was the first emperor from the Roman provinces. Thanks in part to his military energy and abilities, the Roman political system, although transformed, survived the Crisis of the Third Century.
	7. Relief from arch of Septimius Severus commemorating a victory, 203 A.D. (Rome: Forum Romanum in situ). Horizontal staged narrative scenes, framed like a comic book, are at the expense of naturalism, as are the monotonous linear design and squat figures lacking individuation. The desire to convey information even at the expense of naturalism is also seen in the bird's eye perspective. Because expressive classicism contradicted the portrayal of public events and was better suited to personal art, such as busts and sarcophagi, and there are no public reliefs after this until the next century.
	8. Portrait bust of Caracalla, 211-217 A.D. The form here brilliantly convey's the emperor's character: neurotically ambitious, he resolved all problems by brute force. Although the philosopher image would not be appropriate, we nevertheless sense an inner life, conveyed by the chiaroscuro of heavy brows. The deeply drilled hair and beard reflect new eastern (esp. Sassanid) influences on official art.
	9. Onyx cameo of the Apotheosis of Caracalla, ca. 217 A.D. Rome? (Nancy: Bib. Mun.) 7 cm. The natural layers of color are used effectively by changing the depth of carving. The need for intense color reflects a plebeian interest in emotional content. The deification of a dead emperor, while an old notion, gains importance at this time in Roman history because of an official turn to supernatural energy to surmount impossible difficulties, rather than such traditional worldly means such as effective political organization.
	10. Portrait bust of Maximinus I, ca. 238 A.D. This Thracian peasant rose through military ranks to become emperor and treated his subjects harshly. The Roman system came to rely on such brilliant emperors, who owed their position to effective military leadership, in order to address its deepening contradictions, while the senatorial artistocracy clung to a time when they were uninhibited by such powerful rule.
	11. Portrait bust of Philip the Arab, ca. 249 A.D. A brilliant general of humble provincial origins who rose to the rank of emperor and struggled against impossible odds. His harried look, and the broken nose typical of a soldier, reveal a sense of individuation at the expense of bland traditional forms. This bust is a high point of 3rd century expressionism.
	12. Marble portrait bust of Decius, Rome, 249-251 A.D. (Rome: Mus. Cap.) 0.78 m. tall. Decius, who suceeded Philip, was another soldier emperor. Note the use of expressive stylizations: the furrowed contracted brows, deepset drilled eyes and sharp lines about the mouth manifest an asymmetric anxiety.

Stone relief

	1. Marble relief detail from the Ludovisi sarcophagus showing a of Battle of Romans and barbarians, ca. 251 A.D.? While there is an open complex of composition and an expressive chiaroscuro, the dead general is in an entirely different style, which is floating and relaxed. His superhuman serenity indicates that death has freed him from all worldly contradictions.
	2. Marble sarcophagus relief of a lion hunt, ca. 250 A.D. (Rome: Palazzo Mattei). Symbolism of manly virtues symbolized by the hunt may reflect eastern influences and a traditional focus on worldly action. But there are also many expressive elements in the composition and figure style. As with the Ludovisi Sarcophagus, one sees quite a difference between the dead hunter-hero and the person seated on the ground under attack by the lion.
	3. Relief from marble sarcophagus of Publius Peregrinus, showing muses and philosophers, ca. 280 A.D. (Rome: Mus. Torlonia). Although Publius was a man of action, here he is represented in terms of the new ideal of manly virtue, the wisdom to cope with adversity and transcend death. This is a model for later representations of Christ with his Apostles.
	4. Marble sarcophagus relief showing Jonah and the whale, late 3rd c. (Rome: Museo Pio ex Lateranense).

Portrait busts

	1. Portrait bust, ca. 280 A.D., Ostia. With citizenship drained of its content, surface form comes to express inner spiritual and emotional life rather than an external relation to cosmic harmony. Here the bone structure, deep furrows, tight little mouth, eyes focused on nothing, convey a sense of an old, tired, perhaps cynical, man.
	2. Portrait bust of an old woman, Tripoli, North Africa, end 3rd c. A.D. (Tripoli: Castello Mus.)